[分享]my graduation thesis (我的毕业论文) （全英文）

水清浅 · 发表于 2006-10-23 20:02

<div class="Section1" style="LAYOUT-GRID: 15.6pt none;"><h1 style="MARGIN: auto 0cm; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">                             <a name="_Toc137310034">abstract</a></h1>Through the presentation of  the main definition of culture &cultural shock and their impacts on international business, and the comparison of different culture dimensions such as languages , manners, customs, values and attitudes, the paper will gives some effective ways to solve and mitigate the adverse impacts created by cultural conflicts in the process of the international trade. It will be helpful for those Chinese foreign trade-oriented companies to seek more success in international trade.  Cross-cultural barriers will be a potential problem to be taken seriously in international trade, because it will affect the way in <a href="http://www.studa.net/English/">which</a> planning is executed, decisions are made, strategy is implemented, and personnel are evaluated. Understanding manners and customs is especially important in business negotiations, because interpretations based on one’s own frame of reference may lead to a totally incorrect conclusion. To understand the elements of cultural shock and get the right solutions to cultural shock when you confront those embarrassments in conduction of international business, will give  confidence to win in the business world, which is my intention to write the paper .  Key words: Culture; culture shock ; international business ; business negotiation<span lang="EN-US" style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: 宋体; mso-font-kerning: 1.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"><br clear="all" style="

AGE-BREAK-BEFORE: always; mso-break-type: section-break;"/></div>  CULTURE SHOCK ON INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS <h1 style="TEXT-JUSTIFY: inter-ideograph; MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310035">1              INTRODUCTION</a></h1>As far as we know , different countries have different culture .People from different culture share basic concepts but view them from different angles and perspectives , leading them to behave in ways that may seem irrational or even directly contradictory to what others consider appropriate.

eople do not cooperate at all. They just simply work in their own ways, follow their own rules, and achieve their own objective. They do not like to be interfered by others. And culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another.Thanks to technological advances in communication and transportation , the world is becoming smaller and smaller for people . The ever-increasing level of world trade , opening of new markets , and intensifying competition have allowed-and sometimes forced-businesses to expand their operations .Companies can quickly and easily span the globe in search of new customers , new sources of materials , and new sources of money . It is no longer feasible to think of markets and operations in terms of domestic and international .Because the separation is no longer distinguishable, the necessity of culturally sensitive management and personnel is paramount .It is inevitable that the cultural difference has impact on business. such as how to show politeness and respect , how much information to give , how to motivate people , how loud to talk , even what size paper to use .Over the long run , culture can become a factor in the firm’s overall success .
International business success required not only comprehensive fact finding and preparation but also an ability to understand and fully appreciate the nuances of different cultural traits and patterns. Gaining this interpretive knowledge requires “ getting one’s feet wet ” over a sufficient length of time . The challenge for businessman is to handle the different values , attitudes , and behavior that govern human interaction .They must ensure smooth interaction of the business with its different constituents, and also , they must assist others to implement programs within and across markets .  <h1 style="TEXT-JUSTIFY: inter-ideograph; MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310036">2              WHAT IS CULTURE ?</a> </h1><h2 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 34pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -34pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 34.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310037">2.1           Definitions of Culture</a></h2>Of more than 160 definitions of culture analyzed by Bache , Ellyn（1999：65）some conceive of culture as separating humans from nonhumans , some define it as communicable knowledge , and some as the sum of historical achievements produced by man’s social life . All of the definitions have common elements :culture is learned , shared , and transmitted from one generation to the next .Culture is primarily passed on from parents to theirs children but also transmitted by social organizations , special interest groups ,the government , schools , and churches .Common ways of thinking and behaving that are developed then reinforced throUGh social pressure. Culture is also multidimensional , consisting of a number of common elements that are interdependent . Changes occurring in one of the dimensions will affect the others as well . Culture is defined as an integrated system of learned behavior patterns that are characteristic of the members of any given society .It includes everything that a group thinks , says , does , and makes – its customs , language, material artifacts, and shared systems of attitudes and feelings. The definition , therefore , encompasses a wide variety of elements from the materialistic to the spiritual .Culture is inherently conservative , resisting change and fostering continuity .Every person is encultured into a particular culture , learning the “right way” of doing things .Problems may arise when a person encultured in one culture has to adjust to another one .The process of acculturation- adjusting and adapting to a specific culture other than one’s own – is one of the keys to success in international operations .<h2 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 34pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -34pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 34.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310038">2.2          Four cultural dimensions</a></h2>Brislin,R.W.,W.J.Lonner,andR.M.Thorndike(1983:76-92)classifyintercultural communication as a transactional, symbolic process involving the attribution of meaning between people from different cultures .There are four cultural dimensions that were defined :<h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 45.35pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -45.35pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: l0 level3 lfo2; tab-stops: list 45.35pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310039">2.2.1

ower distance</a></h3>What the most significant influence in cultural difference is the power distance. .It would condition the extent to which employees accept that their boss has more power than they have and the extent to which they accept that their boss's opinions and decisions are right because he or she is the boss. Among most oriental corporate cultures, there is hierarchism, greater centralization, sometimes called 'power-oriented culture', due to the historical reasons. That is a high power distance culture that mangers make the decision and superiors appeal to be entitled more privileges. Their decision always close supervision positively evaluated by subordinates. In this situation, it is not be regarded if a subordinates have a disagreement with their managers, especially in Malaysia, Japan, China, India. Because of the different realization of power distance, people behave completely different in business. So conflict and misunderstanding must be emerged when two or more intercultures meet up. Under this situation, the international business people must pay attention to the clashes and be aware of .How to work the subordinates together efficiently and more cooperatively is important too.<h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 45.35pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -45.35pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: l0 level3 lfo2; tab-stops: list 45.35pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310040">2.2.2          Uncertainty avoidance</a></h3>there is also a large discrepancy on the uncertainty avoidance. Hoecklin(1998:108) defined ‘Uncertainty avoidance is the lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the need for formal rules.' That means people trying to set up rules to face to the uncertainty. There is high uncertainty avoidance in most oriental countries such as Japan, China. In these countries, people prefer a stable job. They feel safe and prideful when they keep working hard at the one place. Under this circumstance, an excellent manager should keep his employee away from unpredictable risk. And the employee would like to be worked within groups rather than independently cause of the less risk-taking. But in most western countries, there is low uncertainty avoidance showed, whereas high job mobility occurs in those countries such as USA, Denmark, Singapore. The western people think that when they change their jobs, they can get more experience because they like challenge.
The divergence of the uncertainty avoidance is from different basic social ideology.<h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 45.35pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -45.35pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: l0 level3 lfo2; tab-stops: list 45.35pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310041">2.2.3            Individualism</a></h3>The third dimension Brislin(1983:78) indicated is the individualism. It is a concern for oneself as an individual as opposed to concern for the group. The priority of self-concern or group-concern varies from different cultures. For example, most western employees like to work with their own plan for defending their interest. That is a high individualism. Because of the different attitude to work, 'the incubator culture' arises when cross-cultural individuals work together as a group. It is good for a company to gather as much ideas as they can when starting a new program. But how to manage these individuals to reach the group goal should be the awareness for managers.<h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 45.35pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -45.35pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: l0 level3 lfo2; tab-stops: list 45.35pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310042">2.2.4          Masculinity</a></h3><p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 6.45pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 24pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-char-indent-count: 2.0; mso-char-indent-size: 12.0pt;">Finally Brislin pointed out the masculinity .That is about the sexual inequality. According to Brinslin's definitions, masculine societies define gender roles more rigidly than feminine societies. In business, managers should take a big concern of the treatment to different sex under different cultural influence. In today's world, because of the masculine value and point of view, males take most senior managing positions. But a experienced manager suppose knew that it is harmonious that men work with women since women sometimes are more sensitive. Therefore, how to balance the masculinity/femininity from different culture and background in order to maximize the team power is worth considering by managers.<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 6.45pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 24pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-char-indent-count: 2.0; mso-char-indent-size: 12.0pt;">The above four dimensions illuminated the most important cultural differences that affect on business. International managers should be able to aware not only the cultural difference but also the intercultural communication.  <h1 style="TEXT-JUSTIFY: inter-ideograph; MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310043">3              Culture shock</a></h1><h1 style="TEXT-JUSTIFY: inter-ideograph; MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310044">3.1          What is culture shock ?</a></h1>Cultural risk is just as real as political risk in the international communication. Minor problems may quickly assume the proportions of major crises, and business people may find themselves growing somewhat depressed. They may feel an anxiety that results from losing all their familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse, a kind of psychological disorientation. They will indeed be experiencing what has come to be referred to as "Culture Shock". As long as a person know in advance that he will probably fall victim to culture shock at a certain level, he can prepare himself psychologically to accept the temporary discomfort and turn it into an advantage by learning from it . Falling victim to culture shock, in other words, does not imply the existence of any psychological or emotional shortcomings on one’s part. There is no clear-cut way of dealing with culture shock . Simply recognizing its existence and one’s accepting vulnerability to it is an important first step.
Undergoing culture shock is in itself a learning experience that people should take advantage of. It is a way of sensitizing people to another culture at a level that goes beyond the intellectual and the rational. Just as an athlete cannot get in shape without going through the uncomfortable conditioning stage, so people cannot fully appreciate the cultural differences that exist without first going through the uncomfortable stages of psychological adjustment. <h2 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 34pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -34pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo3; tab-stops: list 34.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310045">3.2          What caused culture shock ?</a></h2>Cultural shock is caused by the anxiety that results from losing all the familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse. These signs include a great many ways with which we are familiar in the situation of daily life: when to shake hands, how to negotiate, when to accept and when to refuse invitations, when to take statements seriously and when not. When a person is suffering from cultural shock, there may appear some important symptoms. First he rejects the new environment that causes the shock. He grumbles about the host country and its people. Another symptom of cultural shock is regression. The home environment suddenly takes on a tremendous importance. To him everything there becomes irrationally glorified. All the difficulties and problems are forgotten and only the good things back home are remembered. There are also some other symptoms of cultural shock, such as excessive washing of the hands, excessive concern over drinking water, food dishes and bedding, fear of physical contact with attendants, the absent –minded stare, a feeling of helplessness and a desire for dependence on long-term residents of one’s own nationality.  <h2 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 34pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -34pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo3; tab-stops: list 34.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310046">3.3          Cultures diversity affect communication</a>
</h2><h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310047">3.3.1  Stability</a>  </h3>Conditions in the culture may be stable or may be changing either slowly or rapidly .For instance, elements of Japan’s culture have been changing rapidly over the past 50 years , which can interfere with receiving and decoding messages .<h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310048">3.3.2  Complexity</a></h3>Cultures vary in the accessibility of information .In Germany and the United States information is contained in explicit codes , including words .However , in Japan , a great deal of information is conveyed implicitly , through body language , tone of voice , and the like .<h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310049">3.3.3  Composition</a></h3>Some cultures are made up of many diverse and disparate subcultures ; others tend to be more homogeneous .Indonesia , for example , is home to a wide variety of ethnic and religious subcultures by comparison , Japan is much more homogeneous because it has only a few subculture .Generally ,the fewer the subcultures in a person’s background , the easier it is to communicate , because people have fewer potential differences to consider .<h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310050">3.3.4  Acceptance</a></h3>Culture vary in their attitudes toward outsiders .Some are openly hostile ,  and others are friendly and cooperative toward strangers . These attitudes can affect the level of trust and open communication one can achieve with people of other cultures .Cultural competence must be recognized as a key management skill .Cultural incompetence, or inflexibility , can easily jeopardize millions of dollars through wasted negotiations ; lost purchases , sales , and contracts ; and poor customer relations . <a name="_Toc137310051">4         Culture shock on international negotiation</a> <a name="_Toc137310052">4.1</a>
 How does culture affect business?Different nations use different languages, so there will be loss or misunderstanding during interpreting. For example, when a company having meeting , the word "table" in American English that means to put something on the agenda. But in British English it means to put something off the agenda. This example indicated how the culture affects the business. And in some culture, people use implicit words more than others, like China .Thus, the non-verbal communication is important, especially the scenic communication. It includes gestures, body language, eye contact .The more scenic part in communication, the harder for people to transmit and receive information. Another part is the concept of time. From that, punctuality is the same but reflects different reality. We all know time is money. But when there is a conference, the German usually presents 5 minutes before the start. Spanish will be late for 15 minutes. But in their mind they are both on time. That is something that international businessman should understand. There is another aspect of time, called 'the use of time'. The American and Northern European have a linear time concept. These societies are referred to as Time-Bound societies. Southern Europeans and Arabs regard time in a linear way but more things they can do or handle at the same time. That can be called 'multi-active time'. And then there is the Asian view of time, cyclical time. Asian thinks time will come around again when it pass away, also the opportunities and risks. Besides the above three aspects of communications, there left the space. It is a big concern of in intercultural communications. When someone has a conversation with a foreign business partner, the space between them are referred to the personal boundary of every culture. Ignorance of space can be lead to real bad impression from other side.<h2 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310053">4.2</a>  Cross- cultural negotiation</h2>International business negotiations take place across national boundaries . They cover various levels of negotiators from multi – nations and multi – nationalities . Due to different history , politics , economics , cultural traditions and customs of different parts of the world , there exist evident differences of values and negotiating of different cultures , customs and business conventions of different countries . Then one can get better negotiating results by creating a friendly negotiating strategies and using flexible negotiating tactics . But be careful not to assume that everyone from any different cultural environment is totally predictable . When meet other cultures , respect and promote , but not be subservient to the negotiating customs of that culture . Understanding manners and customs is especially important in negotiations , because interpretations based on one’s own frame of reference may lead to a totally incorrect conclusion .Universal respect is needed in cross- cultural negotiation .To negotiate effectively abroad , all types of communication should be read correctly .Americans often interpret inaction and silence as negative signs .As a result , Japanese executives tend to expect that their silence can get American to lower prices or sweeten a deal . Even a simple agreement may take days to negotiate in Middle East because the Arab party may want to talk about unrelated issues or do something else for a while . The abrasive style of Russian negotiators and their usual last- minute change requests may cause astonishment and concern on the part of ill- prepared negotiation .Some of the potential ways in which negotiators may not be prepared include (1)insufficient understanding of different ways of thinking ;(2)insufficient attention to the necessity to save face ; (3) insufficient knowledge and appreciation of the host country – its history , culture , government , and image of foreigners ;(4 )insufficient recognition of the decision- making process and the role of personal relations and personalities ; and (5) insufficient allocation of time negotiations .(Fisher,Glen,1999: 120-131)<h2 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310054">4.3</a>
 Culture shock on business negotiation</h2>Negotiation is a course that at least two groups of people trying to reach an agreement with the others for their own benefit. There are two things in negotiation: the topic and the course. During cross-culture negotiation, the course is the crucial obstruction. Different negotiation ways are produced by different cultures. Under this circumstance, there is a classic standpoint of procedures: exploring with objective, task oriented, persuading period, and sign contract. International managers should be aware of every procedure. And during each procedure, the strategy, technique, substance, time, sequence and the focal point are different. While the European Union is an economic dynamo with 373 million people and economic power to match any other bloc, it is also a patchwork quilt of different languages and national customs , which makes it far less homogeneous than Japan , the United States , or even Asia as a whole . All of this can make negotiating in Europe a challenge . Business people tend to be relatively reserved and quite formal . One has to be prepared to wait for the work to begin and for an atmosphere of trust to be created . While any stereotyping of negotiators as sensitization tools . Even among Europeans , if two partners have not taken the trouble to get acquainted or complete their homework , the results can be disastrous . In one case , the Italian director of a construction company went to Germany to negotiate for a project . He began the discussion with a presentation of his company that vaunted its long history and its achievements .The German managers first looked startled , then they excused themselves and walked out the door , without even listening to the offer .The explanation : Germans typically do all the necessary background research before walking in the door . They thought the Italian manager was engaged in ideal boasting about his company , any they found that offensive . Yet the Italian manager thought he was engaged in a vague preliminary to any real negotiations . Real negotiating , as far as he was concerned , would not start at least for another day . The example also illustrates the stark differences between the business styles of the northern and southern Europeans . Northern Europe , with its Protestant tradition and indoor culture , tends to emphasize the technical , the numerical , the tested . Southern Europe , on the other hand , with its Catholic background and open- air lifestyle , tends to favor personal networks , social context , innovation , and flair . Meetings in the south are often longer , but the total decision process may be faster .The French do not neatly fit into the north – south dichotomy :One study found that the style of French negotiators was the most aggressive of thirteen diverse culture studied . In a way , the French still embrace the art of diplomatic negotiating invented in France in the fourteen century . French managers will have carefully prepared for the negotiations , but they generally will begin with some light , logical sparring . Throughout the preliminary and middle stages of negotiating , the French manager will judge the partners carefully on their intellectual skills and their ability to reply quickly and with authority. As one French manger put it , “ Sometimes I am impressed more by brilliant savvy than by a well – reasoned argument . “ Because the French education system stresses mathematics and logic ,doing business is a highly intellectual process for French managers .The details come last in French negotiations , so the final stage can prove to be tricky . French manager tend to slip in little extras when finalizing , like executive bonuses . It is therefore important to insist on what one wants at this stage , even if days have been spent getting to this point .Negotiations should be planned in accordance with events occurring at the host location as well as the needs of visitors . Inviting a Beijing company to San Francisco during the Lunar New Year period will be unwise . Only by monitoring the religious and traditional holidays of all attendees can negotiations proceed without distraction or interruption . Religious requirements of negotiators must also be considered . Religious biases can be destructive to discussions as racial , sexual , or cultural prejudices . Before meetings are scheduled , both sides should be briefed on any special needs .<h2 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310055">4.4</a>  Different negotiating styles of different cultures</h2>       People from different countries have different values , different value , different attitudes and different experience . They have different strenghs and different weaknesses from one another.      A competent negotiator should develop a style appropriate for his own strengths including the strengths of his particular culture . He should not seek to follow the style of a different culture .He should not follow a style in which other people have strengths , but he does not , as that would lead to displaying his natural weaknesses rather than his natural strengths. He needs to become aware of what those strengths of his are and to practice the skills of exploiting them .He needs also to be conscious that other people operate in different ways . It is important to respect their different ways without being subservient to them . (Ying Quan, Yong Chen , 2005: 145-165).<h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310056">4.4.1</a>  American</h3>       The American style is very direct and they try to demand the same from counterparts . Generally , Americans openly disagree and use aggressive persuasive tactics such as threats and warnings . Americans tend to make concessions throughout the negotiations , settling one issue , then proceeding to the next . Thus the final agreement is a sequence of several smaller concessions. Within the American culture , great respect is attached to economic success . Americans make decisions based upon the bottom line and on cold , hard facts . They do not play favorites . Economics and performance count , not people . Business is business .<h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310057">4.4.2</a>  Chinese</h3>        There are at least two differences in the way of business between Chinese and American businessmen.First , Chinese tend to have business negotiations in a rather indirect manner , as opposed to the direct manner of American businessmen .Chinese take time to see whether their prospective business contacts are really reliable as human beings , for example , by inviting them to a party and socializing with them . In contrast , American act with “ get – down – business – first ” mentality .Second , the decision – making process of Chinese companies is considered to be very slow and time – consuming . This is because most Chinese conpanies have the bottom – up decision – making system which involves many people in the decision – making , as opposed to the American companies which usually operate with quick decisions made by the top management .The Chinese negotiator is distinguished by concern for “ face ” and specialization . The “face” issue is most important . The negotiator must be seen to be negotiating with someone of key status and authority . He must not be forced to lose face by having to withdraw from a stance firmly stated during negotiations .The final agreement must be one that enables him to sustain or preferably improve his face as perceived by his acquaintances .The specialization means that there will be lots of experts at the negotiation : the technical expert , the financial expert , the shipping expert , and another three experts . Inevitably this leads to protracted negotiations , each expert establishing and safeguarding his face during the negotiations .The Chinese welcome genuine interest in their families . A present for the son is precious in contrast to a big business lunch , which is worthless .<h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310058">4.4.3</a>   British</h3>      The British are old hands at international business . Their history of negotiation in international business goes back centuries . The depth of their knowledge is without comparison . The may put a wide safety margin in their opening position so as to leave room for substantial concessions during the bargaining process .British business moves at a more deliberate pace than American business . Presentations should be detailed , as the British have seen everything “under the sun “ and there’s nothing new there , so get to the point .<h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"></h3><h3 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: 0cm; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">4.4.4  Japanese</h3>Letters of Introduction are essential for doing business here . As in much of Asia , having connections in Japan is the only way to get through the front door , unless one represents an internationally recognized brand name .The Japanese will not discuss points that are not part of the prearranged agenda . Small talks will be kept to a minimum and inquires into personal lives will rarely be made or accepted .Many Japanese companies still make decisions by consensus .This is a time – consuming process , another reason to bring patience to the negotiating table . So quick answers to any question or problem are almost impossible .The Japanese maintain harmony at all costs will smile the most when they’re the least Comfortable at the negotiating table ; if the proposal is unacceptable , “no” is not told in a direct manner . Postponements and requests for further research should be understood as a prelude to failure .. <h1 style="TEXT-JUSTIFY: inter-ideograph; MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 21.25pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -21.25pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310066">5         Global Business Protocol and Etiquette</a></h1>It is true that to err is human , but isn’t the aim supposed to be for zero defeats these days ? Maybe a reasonable goal would be to commit fewer blunders than any of the competitors . To help international business negotiating travelers avoid damaging blunders , and to achieve that goal , one has to know a good deal about international business protocol .<h2 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 34pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -34pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo3; tab-stops: list 34.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310067">5.1          Dress code</a></h2>Climate and culture both play a role in sartorial behavior .In the tropics and hot desert climes , businessmen often wear an open-necked shirt and cotton trousers. But even in those markets it may be safer to wear a suit coat or blazer to the first meeting just in case . For meetings with government officials , this formality takes on greater importance.In most parts of the world , business women can choose between a good dress , suit or blazer and shirt .For men , a dark suit , conservative tie and dark socks will cover most meetings with high-status individuals .Here are a few culture- specific hints .Visits to Latin Europe and Latin America require special attention to the style and quality of both men’s and women’s apparel and accessories.In the Middle East , the business contacts often judge one partly on the quality and price of one’s briefcase , watch , pen and jewelry . One should wear and carry the best one has .German feel more comfortable doing business with men whose shoes are brightly polished.Throughout Asia , it is a good idea to wear slip-on shoes such as high quality loafers because custom require removing footwear when entering temples , people’s homes and some offices as well .Americans pay special attention to the condition of one’s teeth , so some Europeans include a visit to their dentist for a cleaning as part of their preparation .In Muslim countries , female visitors should dress so as to show as little bare skin as possible.In China , suit , white shirt , conservative tie for men and a conservative suit or dress for women .<h2 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 34pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -34pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo3; tab-stops: list 34.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">5.2         <a name="_Toc137310069">   Exchanging business cards</a></h2>Many visitors to the United States are struck by how casually Americans treat that little piece of card . The East Asian who politely offers his business card with both hands should not be offended if his U.S. counterpart stuffs the card in his back pocket , tosses it onto the desk , scribbles on it or even pick his teeth with it at the lunch table . More formal cultures tend to treat the name card with more respect . For instance , in Japan the “ mersi” or business card is exchanged with great  ceremony . It is always presented and received with both hands , scanned carefully for four or five seconds , placed respectfully on the conference and then put reverently into a leather , not plastic , card wallet .Business visitors to the Pacific Rim will note that the ceremony of the meishi has spread to most parts of East and Southeast Asia . There , one is expected to treat the name card with the same respect as they treat the person who gave the card.5.3        Business gifts    Watch out for culture – specific taboos . Avoid sharp objects such as knives ; in some culture they symbolize the ending of a relationship . In China , avoid clocks and watches , which bring bad luck because the word for clock sounds like another Chinese word which refers to death . Good choices are quality writing instruments, branded whisky , picture books about one’s city , region or country and products one’s home country is famous for .      In Europe , after the agreement is signed . In Japan and most other Asian countries , gifts are given at the end of the meeting . Note that North America is not a gift – giving culture . Many companies have strict policies concerning gifts , especially for people with purchasing responsibilities . Many American negotiators feel uncomfortable if presented with an expensive gift .      In Japan the wrapping of the gift is at least as important as the gift itself . In Japan and the rest of Asia , present and receive any gift with both hands , except in Thailand where the present is handed over with one right hand supported by the left . In Asia and North and South America , the gift will more likely be opened immediately .The nuances of gift – giving are important ; however , not every blunder is fatal . <h2 style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt 34pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; TEXT-INDENT: -34pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo3; tab-stops: list 34.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310073">5.4          Wining and dining</a></h2>Many American negotiators prefer to maintain a separation between their professional and private lives as well as between business and pleasure . If invited to the cocktail party , expect to mix informally with a large number of complete strangers .Smart visitors rely on local advisers or culture – specific guides about food and drink taboos .Observant Muslims do not drink alcohol or eat any pork product . Many avoid shellfish as well .Jews share some of these food taboos .Hindus avoid both beef and pork ; most are strict vegetarians .Buddhists are often strict vegetarians , but many ThaiBuddhists enjoy beef as long as someone else has done the slaughtering for them .Some food and drink taboos are really serious , such as offering the Muslim guest a pork chop or the Hindu friend a T – bone steak . Other taboos are simply amusing . Italians , for example , only dringk cappuccino in the morning , before about 10 am . Knowing the fundamental element of local business protocol shows your counterpart that you are a serious and committed potential supplier or partner .And making fewer blunders gives you an edge over your less conscientious competitor . <h1 style="TEXT-JUSTIFY: inter-ideograph; MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt; LAYOUT-GRID-MODE: char; LINE-HEIGHT: 125%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 21.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><a name="_Toc137310074">6.</a>
 Conclusion</h1>On international Business , people are coming from different cultures, but they have to deal with each other . Businessman both at home and abroad must plan strategies without assuming mutual understanding . It is quite risky to assume that because a person is from a particular background they necessarily think or act in only one way . It makes more sense to look to the interests of parties and try to get beyond presumed cultural barriers by focusing on the end results desired by the parties . It is fundamentally important to find out whether there are things that are done or said which they find offensive and to let them know what one finds offensive . To avoid misunderstanding, clashes, and bias, the international businessman should realize and understand the different cultures, adapt themselves to fit into the business environment in order to get the best achievement in business.In that case ,the successful international communicator should be :(1)Aware that his preferred values and behaviors are influenced by culture and are not necessarily “right”; (2)Flexible and open to change ; (3)Sensitive to verbal and nonverbal behavior ;(4)Aware of the values , beliefs , and practices in other cultures; (5)Sensitive to differences among individuals within a culture .

干净亮 · 发表于 2006-10-25 15:10

想看但是不会看  英语丢了很久了　　晕晕的看见这一长篇

水清浅 · 发表于 2006-10-23 21:32

这是我当年的毕业论文。刚才在清理邮箱时看到了这封以电子档形式发给论文导师邮件，打开看了一下，好有感慨。当时我们的论文基本要求是8000单词以上，考参的专题著作书目至少15本。为了“弄”出这篇东西，我毕业实习回校之后呕心沥血废寝忘食七拼八凑地忙了大半个月（其实，系里给出的准备时间有半年，但当时大家都忙着实习找工作，谁也没空去理会)，最后终于通过了论文组教授们的审查，并在最后的论文答辩中拿到“良好”的成绩（当年全系据说有两个“优秀”，十来个“良好”）。大家都说天下文章一大抄，我原本也这样认为。可是，到真正想抄的时候你会发现，其实值得一抄的东西简直少得可怜！尤其现在这个注重版权的时代，参考是可以的，但抄袭太多的话，谁敢？！网上的资料倒是不少，有价值一点的都需要付费，免费的又没啥用处。所以，以上这篇东东，是在偶竖床板挑灯夜读参考了N本相关著作和报刊杂志之后才“拼凑”出来，不容易啊！——忍不住长长叹了口气！放在这里，除了想跟大家分享之外，如果大家有什么同学朋友刚好也学外语专业，而且刚好也为毕业论文而烦恼的话，我不介意大家把这篇论文推荐给她们参考，照抄就不要了，虽然我没有申请版权保护，但好歹也要修改一些单词句子呀，呵呵。刚才发上来时我已经删除了一些内容，原版的论文太长了，10000多单词，我自己看了都发蒙！希望这篇东西放在这里不完全是碍空间！

[此贴子已经被作者于2006-10-23 13:36:01编辑过]

水清浅 · 发表于 2006-10-23 21:40

估计没人会看，哈哈

水清浅 · 发表于 2006-10-28 19:41

蓝天宣真是过奖了。其实，写这些硬梆梆的论文并不是我擅长的。我喜欢信手涂鸦，随时随地地写下自己的所思所感，这样的方式让我觉得很过瘾很快乐，只是其后遗症也很明显：这种方式下写下来的文字往往都是形神皆散（人家散文至少还形散而神不散），呵呵

水清浅 · 发表于 2006-10-28 05:27

坦白说，我现在自己看了都觉得很晕！所以，当时有人怂恿我继续考研时我时都不肯——学士毕业论文尚且如此“呕心沥血”，硕士毕业论文岂不是要“油尽灯灭”（……呃，可以这样形容吗)？想想都怕怕！

藍天宣 · 发表于 2006-10-28 05:42

才華橫溢[em02]

rococoeer · 发表于 2006-10-30 06:03

有点散。因为文中涉及的理论太多。前面的literature review做的挺好的。文章后头就散了。加了culture shock之类的。（都是可以写一本书的。）其中，你说的four dimensions in discussing or measuring culture 是Brislin,R.W.,W.J.Lonner,and R.M.Thorndike提出来的。这似乎不对的。最有影响的应该是Hofstede在culture's conscequences里面说的。2001年的2nd，还加了 long- vs short-term orientation。里面的有几个variable不是原创。比如individualism vs. collectivism应该是triandis的理论。uncertainty avoidance应该是gudykunst研究的最多，因为他提出了一个AUM (Anxiety and Uncertaity Management)。一起讨论能否将references公布呢？

水清浅 · 发表于 2006-10-30 07:23

真是太激动了，想不到在这个技术网站居然还能遇到这样的知音！8楼的那位高手，我们有空好好讨论一下。我是刚上线的，但马上就要下线了，老妈已经不断地唠叨要我快睡觉。明天重阳，要陪她去森林公园登山。刚才我在写小说片段，原本打算今晚就放上来的，但还没写够一个完整的章节，老妈就不断地催促，我只好明天写完再贴上来了。有空记得要上来哦，我明天详细回你的信息！

水清浅 · 发表于 2006-10-30 07:25

激动中不知所云，见笑见笑！

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